Table 1 Baseline characteristics of 2608 people who use drugs from rural regions, stratified by overdose status

Felt stigma Z-score, mean (SD)

0.43 (0.85)

-0.03 (1.00)

< .001¹

Number of lifetime overdoses, median (IQR)

3 (5, 9)

0 (0, 2)

< .001²

Age

0.20

18–25

26 (15.0)

351 (14.4)

26–35

79 (45.7)

961 (39.5)

36–45

45 (26.0)

655 (26.9)

Greater than 45

23 (13.3)

468 (19.2)

Gender

0.44

Male

104 (60.1)

1383 (57.1)

Female

69 (39.9)

1038 (42.9)

Race/Ethnicity

0.61

White

144 (83.2)

1998 (83.0)

Black

4 (2.3)

77 (3.2)

American Indian/Alaskan Native

16 (9.3)

162 (6.7)

Other races

4 (2.3)

72 (3.0)

Hispanic/Latinx of any race

5 (2.9)

98 (4.1)

Education

0.13

Less than high school

36 (20.8)

562 (23.1)

High school

74 (42.8)

1161 (47.7)

Greater than high school

63 (36.4)

710 (29.2)

Homeless in past 6 months

123 (71.5)

1251 (52.1)

< 0.001

Main Source of income fulltime work

26 (15.2)

438 (181)

0.34

Main Source of income selling drugs

66 (38.6)

528 (21.9)

< 0.001

Incarcerated in past 6 months

91 (53.2)

961 (40.7)

< 0.001

Ever owned naloxone

127 (73.4)

136 (55.4)

< 0.001

Injection drug use in past 6 months

166 (96.0)

2077 (85.5)

< 0.001

Daily injection

134 (77.5)

1389 (57.0)

< 0.001

Injected heroin in past 30 days

158 (91.3)

1551 (64.1)

< 0.001

Injected fentanyl in past 30 days

102 (59.3)

752 (31.0)

< 0.001

Injected methamphetamines in past 30 days

131 (75.7)

1415 (58.6)

< 0.001

Injected speedball in past 30 days

119 (72.1)

908 (39.7)

< 0.001

Used prescription anxiety drugs in past 30 days

109 (63.4)

1253 (51.8)

0.003

Binge drinking in past 30 days

97 (59.2)

1230 (54.6)

0.26

Positive screen for opioid use disorder

157 (92.9)

1951 (82.7)

< 0.001