Table 2 Multivariable logistic regression analyses of recent overdose among 2608 people who use drugs from rural regions

Felt stigma (Z-score)

1.47 (1.20–1.81)***

Sociodemographic covariates

Age

18–25

Ref.

26–35

1.01 (0.62–1.66)

36–45

0.99 (0.57–1.71)

Greater than 45

0.86 (0.45–1.65)

Gender

Female

Ref.

Male

1.30 (0.91–1.84)

Education

Less than high school

Ref.

High school or GED

1.02 (0.65–1.60)

Some college or greater

1.72 (1.07–2.76)*

Homelessness¹

1.57 (1.07–2.29)*

Full-time work¹

0.87 (0.54–1.41)

Main income from drugs¹

1.62 (1.12–2.35)**

Incarceration¹

1.08 (0.76–1.55)

Race/ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White

Ref.

Non-Hispanic Black

0.81 (0.27–2.43)

Non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaskan Native

1.24 (0.67–2.30)

Other races

0.78 (0.27–2.25)

Hispanic/Latinx of any race

0.68 (0.26–1.80)

Substance use-related covariates

Number of lifetime overdoses

1.03 (1.02–1.05)****

Carry Naloxone

1.15 (0.76–1.72)

Injecting drug use¹

0.77 (0.29–2.10)

Daily injection²

1.17 (0.75–1.82)

Injected drugs²

Heroin

2.60 (1.23–5.47)*

Fentanyl

1.21 (0.81–1.82)

Methamphetamines

0.99 (0.57–1.72)

Speedball

1.95 (1.19–3.20)**

Benzodiazepine use²

1.12 (0.78–1.60)

Binge drinking²

1.23 (0.85–1.80)

Positive OUD screen

1.11 (0.55–2.23)

Study site

Illinois

Ref.

Kentucky

0.73 (0.24–2.19)

North Carolina

1.16 (0.42–3.21)

New England

1.31 (0.50–3.43)

Ohio

2.41 (0.91–6.38)

Oregon

0.79 (0.22–2.85)

Wisconsin

0.93 (0.37–2.37)

West Virginia

0.53 (0.15–1.83)