Table 1 Descriptive characteristics of reviewed studies (n = 26)
Author | Design | Location (Type) | N | Female | Age†| Ethnicity | Population | Substances reported | Primary outcome | N reported OD |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argento et al. 2023 | Open prospective cohort | Canada (urban) | 273 | 273 (100%) | 32 | 148 (54%) Indigenous 103 (38%) White 22 (8%) Black/ person of colour | Women sex workers | Alcohol Benzodiazepines Cocaine Crystal methamphetamine Opioids | Self-report OD (during follow up) | 63 (23%) |
Bazazi et al. 2015 | Cross-sectional | Malaysia (mixed) | 460 | 17 (4%) | — | 416 (90%) Malaysian 44 (10%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Benzodiazepines Buprenorphine Heroin Methamphetamine Methadone | Self-report OD (past 6 months) | 92 (20%) |
Bonar et al. 2016 | Cross-sectional | USA (mixed) | 91 | 21 (23%) | 45 | 49 (54%) Non-Caucasian 42 (46%) Caucasian | People who use drugs | — | Self-report OD (ever) | 50 (55%) |
Chang et al. 2019 | Qualitative | USA (mixed) | 40 | 11 (28%) | 43 | 25 (63%) White 6 (15%) African American 8 (20%) Hispanic 1 (2%) Bi/multi-racial | People who use drugs | Alcohol Benzodiazepines Cocaine Methamphetamine Opioids | Self-report OD (past 5 years) | 40 (100%) |
El-Bassel et al. 2020 | Cross-sectional analysis of RCT | Kazakhstan (urban) | 400 | 400 (100%) | 34 | — | Women sex workers | Amphetamine Codeine Desomorphine Fentanyl Heroin Methadone Morphine Opioids (prescribed) Opium Sedatives Synthetic opiates Tramadol | Self-report OD (lifetime)/ (past 90 days) | 150 (38%)/ 27 (18%) |
Fairbairn et al. 2008 | Prospective cohort | Canada (mixed) | 551 | 225 (44%) | 39 | 186 (36%) Aboriginal 365 (64%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Alcohol Benzodiazepines Crack cocaine Crystal methamphetamine Cocaine Heroin Methadone Morphine Speedball | Self-report OD (past 6 months) | 37 (7%) |
Goldenberg et al. 2020 | Open prospective cohort | Canada (mixed) | 624 | 624 (100%) | 34 | 329 (53%) Indigenous 295 (47%) Unreported | Women sex workers | Heroin Crack cocaine Crystal methamphetamine Cocaine Opioids (prescribed) | Self-report OD (past 6 months) | 48 (8%) |
Grau et al. 2009 | Cross-sectional | Russia (urban) | 60 | 29 (38%) | 31 | — | People who use drugs | Alcohol Opioids Amphetamines | Self-report OD (past year) | 27 (45%) |
Harris et al. 2023 | Open prospective cohort | Canada (urban) | 857 | 857 (100%) | 38 | 398 (46%) White 458 (54%) Black/ Indigenous/ Person of colour | Women sex workers | Alcohol Opioids Stimulants | Self-reported OD (past 6 months) | 305 (36%) |
Havens et al. 2011 | Cross-sectional analysis of Longitudinal study | USA (rural) | 400 | 165 (41%) | 31 | 375 (94%) White 25 (6%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Alcohol Benzodiazepines Cocaine Heroin Hydrocodone Marijuana Methadone Methamphetamine Oxycodone | Self-report OD (ever) | 112 (28%) |
Lake et al. 2015 | Prospective study, retrospective data analysis on baseline. | Canada (urban) | 1,697 | 552 (33%) | 42 | 1,044 (62%) Caucasian 651 (38%) Other 2 (0%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Alcohol Cocaine Crack Heroin | Self-reported OD (past 6 months) | 372 (22%) |
Lamonica et al. 2021 | Qualitative | USA (suburban) | 32 | 32 (100%) | 40 | 23 (72%) White 6 (19%) African American/ Black 3 (9%) Hispanic | Suburban women | Cannabis Crack cocaine Cocaine Heroin Methamphetamine Opioids (prescribed) | Self-report OD (ever) | 32 (100%) |
Latkin et al. 2004 | Cross-sectional | USA (urban) | 742 | 310 (42%) | 43 | 689 (96%) African American 53 (4%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Alcohol Crack cocaine Heroin | Self-report OD (ever) | 185 (25%) |
Latkin et al. 2019 | Clinical trial, but retrospective data analysis on baseline | USA (urban) | 444 | 186 (42%) | 45 | 379 (85%) African American 56 (13%) White 9 (2%) Other | People who use drugs | Heroin Opioids (prescribed and illicit) Speedball | Self-reported OD (past year) | 166 (37%) |
Milloy et al. 2010 | Cross-sectional | Thailand (urban) | 252 | 66 (26%) | 37 | — | People who use drugs | Alcohol Benzodiazepines Ecstasy Heroin Methadone Midazolam Yaba | Self-report OD (ever) | 75 (30%) |
Mitra et al. 2021 | Cross-sectional | USA (urban) | 48,869 | 21,433 (44%) | — | 35,058 (72%) White 4,694 (10%) Black 1,664 (3%) Hispanic 7,453 (15%) Other | Intensive care admissions | Alcohol Illicit drugs (unspecified) | NFOD by ICD-9 codes: 965.01, E850.0, 965.0, 965.00, 965.02, 965.09, E850.1, E850.2. | 171 (0.4%) |
Pabayo et al. 2013 | Prospective cohort | Canada (urban) | 1,931 | 653 (34%) | — | — | People who use drugs | Alcohol Cocaine Crystal methamphetamine Heroin Methadone Morphine Speed | Self-reported OD (past 6 months) | 58–147 (3–8%) |
Pizzicato et al. 2018 | Retrospective Cohort | USA (mixed) | 82,780 | 66,409 (20%) | 34 | 52,954 (64%) Black 15,118 (18%) White 11,965 (15%) Hispanic 2,743 (3%) Other/ Unknown | Prison experienced people | Benzodiazepines Cocaine Fentanyl Heroin | Death by unintentional drug OD | 837 (1%) |
Riggs et al. 2020 | Retrospective cohort | USA (mixed) | 5,766 | 666 (8%) | 56 | 2,225 (39%) Black 2,345 (41%) White 1,124 (19%) Other 72 (1%) Unreported | Homeless experienced military veterans. | Alcohol Analgesics Cocaine Fentanyl Gabapentin Heroin Methadone Pregabalin Sedatives | Self-reported OD (past 3 years) | 379 (7%) |
Schiavon et al. 2018 | Prospective cohort | USA (—) | 243 | 105 (43%) | 34 | 216 (89%) Caucasian 24 (10%) African American 3 (1%) Unreported | People who use drugs | Heroin Methadone Opioids (prescribed) | Self-reported OD (ever) | 107 (44%) |
Silva et al. 2013 | Cross-sectional | USA (urban) | 596 | 193 (32%) | 21 | 333 (56%) White 263 (44%) Non-white | Young people who use drugs (16–25 yrs) | Cocaine Heroin Methamphetamine Opioids (prescribed) Stimulants Tranquilisers (prescribed) | Self-report OD (ever) | 138 (24%) |
Thumath et al. 2021 | Retrospective cohort | Canada (mixed) | 696 | 696 (100%) | 40 | 406 (58%) Non-Indigenous 289 (42%) Indigenous | Women sex workers and women living with HIV | — | Self-reported OD (past 6 months) | 135 (19%) |
Tobin et al. 2007 | Longitudinal | USA (urban) | 659 | 292 (44%) | — | 632 (96%) African American 27 (4%) Other | People who use drugs | Alcohol Crack cocaine Cocaine Heroin | Self-report OD (ever) | 96 (15%) |
Tomko et al. 2022 | Cross-sectional | USA (urban) | 563 | 222 (40%) | 48 | 95 (17%) Non-Hispanic White 397 (72%) Non-Hispanic Black 58 (11%) Hispanic/ Mixed race/ Other race | People who use drugs | Cocaine Fentanyl Heroin Opioids (prescribed) Speedball | Self-reported OD (past 6 months). | 168 (30%) |
Vallance et al. 2018 | Cross-sectional | Canada (urban) | 548 | 171 (32%) | 41 | 415 (76%) White/Other 128 (24%) Indigenous | Homeless/ inadequately housed people | Crystal methamphetamine Cocaine powder Crack cocaine Heroin Pharmaceutical opioids | Self-reported OD (past 12 months) | 102 (20%) |
Winter et al. 2015 | RCT | Australia (mixed) | 1,051 | 222 (21%) | — | 821 (78%) Unreported 230 (22%) Indigenous | Prison experienced people | Alcohol Amphetamines Cannabis Heroin Opioids (prescribed and illicit) | Self-reported OD (past 6 months) | 38 (4%) |