Table 1 Participant characteristics in the total sample and by network characteristics (N = 575)

Age

Less than 50 years of age

255 (44.3)

68 (26.8)

Ref

103 (40.6)

Ref

50 years of age or older

321 (55.7)

63 (19.6)

0.73 (0.54, 0.99)

156 (48.8)

1.20 (1.00, 1.45)

Race/ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White

106 (18.4)

26 (24.8)

Ref

46 (43.4)

Ref

Non-Hispanic Black

217 (37.7)

47 (21.7)

0.87 (0.58, 1.33)

108 (49.8)

1.15 (0.89, 1.48)

Hispanic/Latinx

229 (39.8)

53 (23.1)

0.93 (0.62, 1.41)

97 (42.7)

0.98 (0.76, 1.28)

Other

19 (3.30)

4 (21.0)

0.85 (0.33, 2.16)

6 (31.6)

0.73 (0.36, 1.46)

Sex

Female

193 (33.5)

43 (22.5)

Ref

90 (27.1)

Ref

Male

379 (65.8)

87 (23.0)

1.02 (0.74, 1.41)

167 (44.3)

0.94 (0.78, 1.13)

Employment status

Unemployed

445 (77.3)

99 (22.3)

Ref

195 (44.0)

Ref

Employed

124 (21.5)

30 (24.2)

1.08 (0.76, 1.55)

62 (50.0)

1.14 (0.92, 1.39)

Currently homeless

No

402 (69.9)

90 (22.4)

Ref

184 (45.9)

Ref

Yes

173 (30.1)

41 (23.7)

1.06 (0.76, 1.46)

75 (43.4)

0.76 (0.63, 0.93)

Ever incarcerated

No

114 (19.8)

33 (29.0)

Ref

63 (55.8)

Ref

Yes

462 (80.2)

98 (21.3)

0.73 (0.52, 1.03)

196 (42.5)

0.59 (0.39, 0.89)

Currently lives with romantic partner

No

426 (74.1)

103 (24.2)

Ref

192 (45.3)

Ref

Yes

149 (25.9)

28 (18.8)

0.78 (0.53, 1.13)

67 (44.7)

0.99 (0.80, 1.21)

Currently lives with romantic partner who uses opioids

No

473 (82.3)

115 (24.3)

Ref

215 (45.6)

Ref

Yes

102 (17.7)

16 (15.7)

0.64 (0.40, 1.04)

44 (42.7)

0.94 (0.73, 1.20)

Currently lives with anyone

No

140 (24.4)

30 (21.4)

Ref

67 (48.2)

Ref

Yes

434 (75.6)

101 (23.3

1.09 (0.76, 1.56)

192 (44.2)

0.92 (0.75, 1.12)

Currently lives with anyone who uses opioids

No

399 (72.0)

98 (24.6)

Ref

186 (46.8)

Ref

Yes

155 (28.0)

27 (17.4)

0.71 (0.48, 1.04)

64 (41.0)

0.88 (0.70, 1.09)

Current living situation

Lives alone

140 (25.3)

30 (21.4)

Ref

67 (48.2)

Ref

Not with anyone who uses opioids

259 (46.8)

68 (26.2)

1.22 (0.84, 1.79)

119 (46.1)

0.96 (0.77, 1.19)

Someone who uses opioids

155 (28.0)

27 (17.4)

0.81 (0.51, 1.30)

64 (41.0)

0.85 (0.66, 1.10)

Length of opioid use history

15 years of less

154 (16.8)

46 (30.1)

Ref

71 (46.4)

Ref

16–26 years

136 (23.6)

30 (22.1)

0.73 (0.49, 1.09)

52 (38.2)

0.82 (0.63, 1.08)

27–35 years27–35 years

147 (25.6)

32 (21.8)

0.72 (0.49, 1.07)

72 (49.0)

1.06 (0.83, 1.34)

36 years or longer

137 (23.8)

23 (16.8)

0.56 (0.36, 0.87)

64 (47.1)

1.01 (0.79, 1.30)

OUD severity

Mild/moderate

95 (16.5)

24 (25.3)

Ref

56 (59.0)

Ref

Severe

441 (76.6)

93 (21.1)

0.84 (0.57, 1.24)

186 (42.4)

0.72 (0.59, 0.88)

Ever injected heroin

No

365 (63.4)

85 (23.3)

Ref

175 (48.2)

Ref

Yes

196 (34.0)

39 (20.0)

0.86 (0.61, 1.20)

75 (38.3)

0.80 (0.64, 0.98)

Cocaine use in past 30 days

No

288 (50.0)

77 (26.7)

Ref

139 (48.4)

Ref

Yes

288 (50.0)

54 (18.8)

0.70 (0.52, 0.96)

120 (41.8)

0.86 (0.72, 1.04)

Crack use in past 30 days

No

415 (72.0)

95 (23.0)

Ref

197 (47.6)

Ref

Yes

161 (28.0)

26 (22.4)

0.97 (0.70, 1.37)

62 (38.8)

0.81 (0.65, 1.01)

Marijuana use in past 30 days

No

358 (62.2)

84 (23.5)

Ref

170 (47.6)

Ref

Yes

218 (37.8)

47 (21.6)

0.92 (0.67, 1.26)

89 (41.1)

0.86 (0.71, 1.04)

Benzodiazepine use in past 30 days

No

387 (67.2)

88 (22.8)

Ref

178 (46.2)

Ref

Yes

189 (32.8)

43 (22.8)

1.00 (0.72, 1.38)

81 (42.9)

0.93 (0.76, 1.13)

Fentanyl detected in urine analysis

No

268 (46.5)

64 (23.9)

Ref

135 (50.6)

Ref

Yes

306 (53.1)

66 (21.6)

0.90 (0.67, 1.23)

123 (40.3)

0.80 (0.66, 0.96)

Oxycodone detected in urine analysis

No

541 (93.9)

123 (22.8)

Ref

247 (45.7)

Ref

Yes

33 (5.7)

7 (21.2)

0.93 (0.47, 1.83)

11 (34.4)

0.75 (0.46, 1.22)

Heroin detected in urine analysis

No

79 (13.7)

17 (21.5)

Ref

43 (55.1)

Ref

Yes

495 (85.9)

113 (22.9)

1.06 (0.68, 1.67)

215 (43.5)

0.79 (0.63, 0.99)

Stigma (median ≥ 13)

No

278 (48.3)

53 (19.1)

Ref

120 (43.2)

Ref

Yes

280 (48.6)

68 (24.4)

1.27 (0.93, 1.76)

127 (45.5)

1.05 (0.88, 1.27)

PTSD

No

513 (89.1)

117 (22.8)

Ref

232 (45.4)

Ref

Yes

62 (10.8)

14 (22.6)

0.99 (0.61, 1.61)

27 (43.6)

0.96 (0.71, 1.29)

Omnibus mental health*

0.7 (0.25, 1.3)

Ref

Ref

1.02 (0.84, 1.24)

0.99 (0.87, 1.12)

Depression

No

264 (45.9)

62 (23.5)

Ref

115 (43.6)

Ref

Yes

69 (54.1)

69 (22.2)

0.94 (0.70, 1.28)

114 (46.4)

1.07 (0.89, 1.28)

Anxiety

No

314 (54.6)

70 (22.3)

Ref

143 (45.5)

Ref

Yes

216 (45.4)

61 (23.4)

1.05 (0.78, 1.42)

116 (44.6)

0.98 (0.82, 1.17)

Suicidality

No

546 (95.1)

125 (22.9)

Ref

247 (45.2)

Ref

Yes

28 (4.9)

6 (21.4)

0.94 (0.45, 1.94)

12 (44.4)

0.98 (0.64, 1.51)

SEP visits in past 3 months

No

347 (60.2)

88 (25.4)

Ref

172 (49.7)

Ref

Yes

170 (29.5)

30 (17.8)

0.70 (0.48, 1.02)

64 (17.9)

0.76 (0.51, 0.95)

Currently opioid treatment

No current treatment

254 (44.2)

71 (28.0)

Ref

104 (41.1)

Ref

Medication assisted treatment

321 (55.8)

60 (18.7)

0.67 (0.49, 0.90)

155 (48.3)

1.17 (0.98, 1.41)

Ever trained to administer naloxone

No

193 (33.5)

56 (29.0)

Ref

95 (49.5)

Ref

Yes

379 (65.8)

93 (19.3)

0.66 (0.49, 0.90)

163 (43.1)

0.87 (0.72, 1.05)

Administered naloxone in past 3 months

No

474 (82.3)

120 (25.4)

Ref

227 (48.1)

Ref

Yes

102 (17.7)

11 (10.8)

0.42 (0.24, 0.76)

32 (31.4)

0.65 (0.48, 0.88)