Table 2 Participant characteristics in the total sample and by unprotected use and OD experience in past 30 days (N = 575)

Age

Less than 50 years of age

146 (58.4)

Ref

105 (41.3)

Ref

50 Years of age or older

219 (68.6)

1.18 (1.03, 1.34)

80 (24.9)

0.60 (0.47, 0.77)

Race/ethnicity

Non-Hispanic White

59 (56.2)

Ref

45 (42.9)

Ref

Non-Hispanic Black

153 (71.2)

1.27 (1.05, 1.53)

58 (26.7)

0.62 (0.46, 0.85)

Hispanic/Latinx

139 (61.5)

1.09 (0.90, 1.33)

78 (34.1)

0.79 (0.60, 1.06)

Other

11 (61.1)

1.09 (0.72, 1.63)

3 (15.8)

0.37 (0.13, 1.07)

Sex

Female

117 (61.6)

Ref

58 (30.2)

Ref

Male

248 (66.1)

1.07 (0.94, 1.23)

123 (32.4)

1.07 (0.83, 1.39)

Employment status

Unemployed

289 (65.5)

Ref

132 (29.7)

Ref

Employed

70 (57.8)

0.88 (0.75, 1.04)

53 (42.7)

1.44 (1.12, 1.84)

Currently homeless

No

264 (66.7)

Ref

133 (33.2)

Ref

Yes

101 (58.4)

0.88 (0.76, 1.01)

52 (29.9)

0.90 (0.69, 1.18)

Ever incarcerated

No

74 (66.7)

Ref

36 (31.6)

Ref

Yes

291 (63.5)

0.95 (0.82, 1.11)

149 (32.3)

1.02 (0.76, 1.38)

Length of opioid use history

15 Years of less

89 (58.6)

Ref

66 (42.9)

Ref

16–26 years

88 (65.2)

1.11 (0.93, 1.34)

41 (30.2)

0.70 (0.51, 0.96)

27–35 years

92 (62.8)

1.07 (0.89, 1.29)

48 (32.6)

0.76 (0.57, 1.02)

36 years or longer

97 (71.3)

1.22 (1.03, 1.44)

30 (21.9)

0.51 (0.35, 0.74)

OUD severity

Mild/moderate

67 (72.0)

Ref

14 (14.7)

Ref

Severe

271 (62.2)

0.86 (0.74, 1.00)

159 (36.1)

2.45 (1.49, 4.04)

Ever injected heroin

No

255 (70.8)

Ref

107 (29.3)

Ref

Yes

98 (50.3)

0.71 (0.61, 0.83)

75 (38.5)

1.31 (1.03, 1.66)

Cocaine use in past 30 days

No

196 (68.8)

Ref

82 (28.6)

Ref

Yes

169 (59.5)

0.86 (0.76, 0.98)

103 (35.8)

1.25 (0.98, 1.59)

Crack use in past 30 days

No

265 (65.0)

Ref

121 (29.2)

Ref

Yes

100 (62.1)

0.96 (0.83, 1.10)

64 (39.8)

0.96 (0.83, 1.10)

Marijuana use in past 30 days

No

235 (66.2)

Ref

96 (26.9)

Ref

Yes

130 (60.8)

0.92 (0.80, 1.05)

89 (40.8)

1.52 (1.20, 1.92)

Benzodiazepine use in past 30 days

No

254 (66.5)

Ref

105 (27.2)

Ref

Yes

111 (59.4)

0.89 (0.78, 1.02)

80 (42.3)

1.56 (1.23, 1.96)

Fentanyl detected in urine analysis

No

184 (68.9)

Ref

89 (33.2)

Ref

Yes

179 (59.7)

0.86 (0.76, 0.98)

95 (31.2)

0.94 (0.74, 1.19)

Oxycodone detected in urine analysis

No

344 (63.9)

Ref

172 (31.8)

Ref

Yes

19 (65.5)

1.02 (0.78, 1.34)

12 (37.5)

1.18 (0.74, 1.88)

Heroin detected in urine analysis

No

49 (62.0)

Ref

32 (40.5)

Ref

Yes

314 (64.3)

1.04 (0.86, 1.25)

152 (30.8)

0.76 (0.56, 1.02)

Stigma (median ≥ 13)

No

167 (60.5)

Ref

84 (30.3)

Ref

Yes

189 (68.5)

1.13 (1.00, 1.28)

96 (34.3)

1.13 (0.89, 1.44)

PTSD

No

330 (65.0)

Ref

161 (31.4)

Ref

Yes

35 (57.4)

24 (38.7)

1.23 (0.88, 1.73)

Omnibus mental health*

Ref

Ref

0.95 (0.86, 1.04)

1.30 (1.14, 1.48)

Depression

No

172 (65.9)

Ref

66 (24.9)

Ref

Yes

193 (62.7)

0.95 (0.84, 1.08)

119 (38.4)

1.54 (1.20, 1.98)

Anxiety

No

210 (67.5)

Ref

89 (28.2)

Ref

Yes

155 (60.1)

0.89 (0.78, 1.01)

96 (36.9)

1.31 (1.03, 1.66)

Suicidality

No

349 (64.4)

Ref

170 (31.1)

Ref

Yes

16 (59.3)

0.92 (0.67, 1.27)

15 (53.6)

1.72 (1.19, 2.49)

SEP visits in past 3 months

No

251 (73.4)

Ref

95 (27.4)

Ref

Yes

80 (47.3)

0.64 (0.54, 0.76)

64 (37.6)

1.38 (1.06, 1.78)

Currently opioid treatment

No current treatment

161 (64.1)

Ref

99 (39.1)

Ref

Medication assisted treatment

204 (64.2)

1.00 (0.88, 1.13)

86 (26.7)

0.68 (0.54, 0.86)

Ever trained to administer naloxone

No

162 (85.3)

Ref

51 (26.4)

Ref

Yes

200 (53.3)

0.62 (0.56, 0.70)

132 (34.9)

1.32 (1.00, 1.74)

Administered naloxone in past 3 months

No

325 (69.3)

Ref

135 (28.5)

Ref

Yes

40 (40.0)

0.58 (0.45, 0.74)

50 (49.5)

1.74 (1.36, 2.22)