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Table 2 Associations of characteristics with the presence of symptoms of anxiety or depression among study participants

From: The effect of different types of migration on symptoms of anxiety or depression and experience of violence among people who use or inject drugs in Kachin State, Myanmar

Characteristics

Total

Col %

Anxiety or depression δδ

Unadjusted

Migrant^

Economic migration ¥

Forced displacement £

n

Row %

OR

(95% CI)

aOR

(95% CI)

aOR

(95% CI)

aOR

(95% CI)

Total

406

 

133

(32.8)

        

Age group

 ≤ 24

90

(22.2)

33

(36.7)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 25–34

182

(44.8)

55

(30.2)

0.75

(0.44–1.27)

0.8

(0.44–1.45)

0.82

(0.45–1.49)

0.79

(0.43–1.44)

 35–44

106

(26.1)

38

(35.8)

0.97

(0.54–1.73)

1.13

(0.59–2.20)

1.19

(0.62–2.32)

1.12

(0.57–2.18)

 ≥ 45

28

(6.9)

7

(25.0)

0.58

(0.22–1.50)

0.84

(0.28–2.47)

0.86

(0.29–2.52)

0.91

(0.31–2.68)

Ethnicity

 Non-Kachin$

123

(30.3)

39

(31.7)

ref

       

 Kachin

283

(69.7)

94

(33.2)

1.07

(0.68–1.69)

      

Education

 Primary school or no school

104

(25.6)

27

(26.0)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 Middle school

167

(41.1)

54

(32.3)

1.36

(0.79–2.35)

1.18

(0.64–2.18)

1.14

(0.61–2.11)

1.32

(0.70–2.48)

 High school and college

135

(33.3)

52

(38.5)

1.79

(1.02–3.12)

1.41

(0.75–2.66)

1.34

(0.71–2.53)

1.59

(0.83–3.02)

Main income from farming in the last 3 months

 Yes

196

(48.3)

54

(27.6)

0.63

(0.41–0.96)

0.56

(0.34–0.9)

0.53

(0.33–0.86)

0.52

(0.32–0.84)

 No

210

(51.7)

79

(37.6)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

Type of drug use in the last 3 months

 ATS with or without Opioid substance

61

(15.0)

15

(24.6)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 Opioid substances without ATS

345

(85.0)

118

(34.2)

1.59

(0.85–2.97)

1.76

(0.89–3.51)

1.77

(0.88–3.59)

1.68

(0.84–3.36)

Ever injected drugs

 Yes

331

(81.5)

107

(32.3)

0.9

(0.53–1.53)

      

 No

75

(18.5)

26

(34.7)

ref

       

Detained in the last 12 months (n = 406)

 Yes

30

(7.4)

11

(36.7)

1.21

(0.56–2.61)

      

 No

376

(92.6)

122

(32.4)

ref

       

Stopped by police/anti-drugs squad in the last 12 months (n = 406)

 Yes

109

(26.8)

37

(33.9)

1.08

(0.68–1.71)

      

 No

297

(73.2)

96

(32.3)

ref

       

Housing status in the last 3 months (n = 399)

 Stable housing

279

(69.9)

92

(33.0)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 Non-stable housing&

120

(30.1)

38

(31.7)

0.94

(0.60–1.49)

0.72

(0.43–1.22)

0.79

(0.47–1.33)

0.72

(0.43–1.21)

Felt hungry the last 12 months (n = 405)

 Yes

112

(27.7)

59

(52.7)

3.29

(2.09–5.19)

2.83

(1.70–4.69)

2.86

(1.70–4.80)

2.89

(1.73–4.81)

 No

293

(72.3)

74

(25.3)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

Recent experience of emotional violence µ (n = 403)

 Yes

246

(60.7)

95

(38.6)

2.04

(1.30–3.20)

1.63

(0.98–2.71)

1.7

(1.01–2.84)

1.46

(0.87–2.46)

 No

157

(38.8)

37

(23.6)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

Recent experience of physical violence ¶ (n = 404)

 Yes

37

(9.2)

18

(48.6)

2.08

(1.05–4.10)

1.24

(0.56–2.75)

1.48

(0.66–3.32)

1.23

(0.55–2.73)

 No

367

(90.8)

115

(31.3)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

HIV result (n = 396)

 Negative

141

(35.6)

50

(35.5)

ref

       

 Positive

255

(64.4)

77

(30.2)

0.79

(0.51–1.22)

      

Had ORW visits in the last 12 months (n = 392)

 Yes

82

(20.9)

26

(31.7)

ref

       

 No

310

(79.1)

99

(31.9)

1.01

(0.60–1.70)

      

Type of current treatment (n = 403)

 No current treatment

325

(80.6)

109

(33.5)

ref

       

 Methadone

40

(9.9)

10

(25.0)

0.66

(0.31–1.40)

      

 Non-methadone treatment*

38

(9.4)

14

(36.8)

1.16

(0.58–2.32)

      

Average stigma score within families σ (n = 406)

 Between 1 and 2

213

(52.5)

50

(23.5)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 Between 2 and 5

193

(47.5)

83

(43.0)

2.46

(1.61–3.77)

1.67

(1.02–2.72)

1.56

(0.95–2.56)

1.73

(1.05–2.83)

Average stigma score within health care providers σ (n = 406)

 Score 1

380

(93.6)

118

(31.1)

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

ref

 

 More than 1

26

(6.4)

15

(57.7)

3.03

(1.35–6.79)

2.1

(0.86–5.11)

1.94

(0.78–4.83)

2.3

(0.93–5.64)

Being migrant^ (n = 406)

 Yes

115

(28.3)

44

(38.3)

1.41

(0.90–2.21)

1.32

(0.79–2.22)

    

 No

291

(71.7)

89

(30.6)

ref

 

ref

     

Economic migration ¥ (n = 398)

 Yes

310

(77.9)

106

(34.2)

1.39

(0.82–2.34)

  

0.95

(0.53–1.71)

  

 No

88

(22.1)

24

(27.3)

ref

   

ref

   

Forced displacement £ (n = 406)

 Yes

79

(19.5)

39

(49.4)

2.42

(1.46–3.99)

    

2.33

(1.32–4.11)

 No

327

(80.5)

94

(28.7)

ref

     

ref

 
  1. n = number, ref = reference category, col% = column percentage, Row% = row percentage, OR = unadjusted odds ratio, aOR = adjusted odds ratio, 95% CI = 95% confidence interval, ATS = amphetamine-type stimulants, HIV = human immunodeficiency virus, HCV = hepatitis C virus, statistically significant associations are indicated in bold
  2. δδPresence of symptoms of anxiety or depression was defined as having the PHQ4 score of 6 or more than 6
  3. $Non-Kachin ethnicity contained Shan, Bamar, Chinese, Gawrakha, Karen, Mon, Naga, and Rakhine ethnicities
  4. &Non-stable housing refers to living in work-provided accommodation or living in someone's house or an internally displaced persons camp, no fixed address, drug treatment institution, drug rehabilitation centre or in jail in the last 3 months
  5. *Non-methadone treatment refers to religious-based psychosocial support, counselling, and treatment at NGO clinics. Methadone was provided only in the public facilities at the survey site
  6. σSigma score can be interpreted as 1 = Never, 2 = Not often, 3 = somewhat often, 4 = Often, 5 = Very Often
  7. ^Migrant was defined as those who had not been living in Waingmaw for their whole life, and the adjusted model used migrant as a key exposure variable
  8. ¥Economic migration refers to those who had ever migrated for work, and the adjusted model used economic migration as a key exposure variable
  9. £Forced displacement refers to those who had ever migrated because of war or armed conflict, and the adjusted model used forced displacement as key exposure variable
  10. µRecent experience of emotional violence refers to being called in a derogatory term in the last 12 months
  11. ¶Recent experience of physical violence refers to being physically abused in the last 12 months
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Harm Reduction Journal

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