Table 1 Intervention types definitions
Laws and regulations | Lockout |
A “one-way door policy”, whereby entry or re-entry to a licensed venue is prohibited after a specified time, but patrons remaining inside the venue past this time can continue purchasing and consuming until the venue closes | |
Risk-based licensing (RBL) | |
Policies applied specifically to premises assessed as being of high risk of alcohol-related harms that may include tailored measures and/or liquor license fees that are levied according to assessed venue risks | |
Alcohol availability restrictions | |
These policies aim to restrict the availability of alcohol to consumers and include the banning the sale of "rapid intoxication liquor" (e.g., shots) after midnight or prohibiting the sale of spirits, aiming to mitigate alcohol-related harms by controlling the types and timing of alcohol consumption | |
Trade hour restrictions and extensions | |
Restrictions or extensions to the permissible hours during which alcohol can be sold or consumed, strategically impacting alcohol-related harms by controlling availability and consumption patterns to promote safer and more controlled recreational environments | |
Staggered closing times | |
Varied end-of-service hours for various licensed premises aiming to mitigate alcohol-related harms by reducing the simultaneous dispersal of alcohol-affected patrons onto the streets | |
Legal purchase age | |
The legally established minimum age at which individuals are permitted to buy alcohol, that aims to mitigate potential harm by restricting access and consumption among underage patrons. Minimum ages vary across the world | |
Smoking bans | |
Regulatory prohibitions on the consumption of tobacco (and sometimes nicotine through electronic nicotine devices). These bans are interrelated with alcohol and other drug-related harm mitigation by reducing exposure to second-hand smoke, risk of drink spiking when patrons left drinks unattended to smoke outside, and risk of overcrowding in smoking areas | |
Regulatory compliance and enforcement | |
The rigorous oversight and implementation of responsible service of alcohol (RSA) regulations by law enforcement, liquor licensing authorities, and venue personnel, that aims to mitigate AOD-related harms | |
Policing strategies | Strategies involving police, such as the use of drug detection dogs, implementation of patron bans, and the application of varying levels of policing enforcement responses |
Medical services | Services such as onsite medical personnel, first aid resources, and rapid first response services. These services aim to contribute to enhanced care for attendees and mitigate the strain on local resources by reducing hospitalizations and ambulance transfers |
Chill/safe space and roaming support services | Multi-faceted services that typically encompass drug education booths, peer led AOD care initiatives (e.g., quiet “chill” spaces for those recovering from the effects of substances), and the distribution of harm reduction resources like sunscreen, condoms, water, and earplugs. These initiatives align with onsite medical services by proactively offering assistance, promoting informed decision-making, and cultivating a safer, more supportive event environment |
Transport interventions | These interventions encompass 24-h public transportation, designated driver initiatives, ride-share services, and accessible taxi stands, and are offered as strategic measures to curtail alcohol and drug-related harms by mitigating alcohol- and drug-impaired driving, ensuring the safe transportation of affected individuals, and concurrently diminishing incidents of aggression and assault within licensed entertainment areas |
Staff and venue intervention | These interventions include staff RSA training, the voluntary use of hand-held breathalyzers to discourage excessive intoxication, in-bar media campaigns promoting water hydration, violence de-escalation training for bar staff, and the strategic deployment of capable guardians such as bouncers, door attendants, and barricades. Staff and venue interventions create safer environments and curb substance-related issues |
Drug checking/pill testing | This intervention aims to analyze drug samples directly from the service user, return results to the service user, engage in information exchange between the service user and the service regarding the user and the content and strength/dose of the drug, and provide a tailored intervention |
Patron survey and assessment feedback | This intervention includes a street intercept survey with personalized normative feedback on alcohol and other drug-related risks with tips to reduce related harm |
Multicomponent interventions | Sydney “lockout laws” |
The “Lockout Laws” in Sydney, Australia, were a set of policy interventions packaged under the official title of the Plan of Management for the Sydney CBD Entertainment Precinct which included: (i) a 1:30am lockout at pubs, bars, registered clubs, nightclubs and karaoke bars; (ii) a 3am cessation of alcohol service in all venues; (iii) a prohibition on the granting of any new liquor licenses; (iv) a ban on takeaway alcohol sales across NSW after 10pm; (v) an extension of ‘banning orders’ on designated ‘trouble-makers’ to prevent them entering most licensed premises in the Kings Cross and Sydney’s CBD precincts; (vi) a ban on ‘shots’ and any ready-to-drink beverage with an alcohol by volume content of more than 5%; and (vii) the introduction of a risk-based license fee for all licensed premises based on license type, compliance history and trading hours | |
Queensland “tackling alcohol-fuelled violence” (TAFV) policy | |
The TAFV policy in Queensland, Australia, included the following in stages: (i) a restriction on the service of alcohol from 5 to 3am in the state’s 15 designated late-night entertainment precincts (Safe Night Precincts; SNPs); (ii) a ban on the sale of shots (or high-alcohol beverages); and (iii) mandatory ID scanners | |
Newcastle liquor licensing restrictions | |
The Newcastle Central Business District (CBD) multicomponent intervention included: (i) earlier closing (3am) and lockout (1am), relaxed to 3:30am and 1:30am months later, (ii) the requirement for licensees to adopt management plans, which were subject to compliance audits, and had a dedicated RSA officer from 11pm until closing, (iii) a ban on serving shots after 10pm, and cessation of selling alcohol 30 min before closing, (iv) a ban on drink stockpiling, and (v) requirements to adopt shared radio procedures and notify all staff of the conditions | |
US multicomponent interventions | |
Multicomponent interventions trialled in the USA have largely been designed with RSA and law/liquor licensing enforcement measures at their core | |
New Zealand’s sale and supply of alcohol act | |
The Sale and Supply of Alcohol Act included trading hour limits for on-licensed and off-licensed premises, new RBL fees, changes to licensing procedures, and the legal enforcement of one-way door policies | |
UK multicomponent studies | |
These largely include Cumulative Impact Zones (CIZ)—specific zones within night-time entertainment districts whereby local authorities may apply additional measures to reduce harm and increase public safety | |
SALUTT and STAD interventions in Northern Europe | |
The STAD in Sweden focused on RSA training, stricter enforcement of existing alcohol laws by bar staff and police, and the development of community coalition steering groups. The SALUTT intervention in Norway was modelled on STAD, with noted differences including an increased emphasis placed on dialog relative to sanctions, and a less central role played by the police regarding licensing and control |